Confrontation with Orientalism: Origins, Trends, and Outcomes

A crucial need for us is to comprehend the existing Western approaches to the world of Islam and its broader issues and topics. Specifically, it is essential to understand how Western scholars have approached Islamic studies in various periods, including their perspectives and methodologies.

We encounter two key issues here:

Firstly, while we have consistently engaged with the content of books related to Islam and the Islamic world, we lack a precise historical account of the formation of “Oriental Studies.” Unfortunately, there are very few books in Arabic and a limited number in Persian that shed light on the knowledge of Orientalists, and they generally contain minimal information.

I intend to understand the stages of confrontation between traditional and modern Western thought with Islam and Islamic studies, also known as the dialectical literature between Christian West and Islamic East. We need to comprehend the accurate evolution of Oriental Studies over centuries during which Islam and Christianity have interacted.

This entails recognizing the stages of this interaction, the contexts in which these works have emerged, and the foundations and research methods used in the West to identify Islamic East. These studies have developed under specific conditions of encounter, with the West facing the Islamic East in each period, influenced by its prevailing ideologies, political and social circumstances.

This requirement demands extensive research, a substantial part of which we have yet to explore.

Secondly, understanding the individuals who have been active in this field is essential. This involves identifying these individuals, their affiliations with academic institutions, and the interests, professions, and ideas that have shaped their lives.

While we often possess biographical information about Orientalists, we lack precise knowledge about their life experiences, thoughts, and backgrounds. This is a necessary endeavor.

A few attempts have been made to compile biographical dictionaries for Orientalists in Iran, but there has never been a serious and scholarly effort in this field.

We Have Always Been Concerned with Oriental Studies

Our concern regarding Oriental studies has been present almost from the very beginning when these investigations entered our world. Our perception of these studies is distinct from our engagement with other Western products, and it is notably more sensitive. In general, we have been wary of “Western knowledge” and have consistently approached it with caution.

Despite our concerns, the issue has been justifiable for us, albeit with some delay. In this context, the realm of mathematics and engineering, among others, has been included. Resistance against mathematical sciences has been minimal, but when it comes to certain branches of natural sciences such as medicine and biology, our questions have been more pronounced. An example of this is the resistance to Darwin’s theories, which have yet to gain acceptance among many Muslims.

However, when it comes to certain areas, including history, this sensitivity has been even more pronounced and continues to be so to this day. In Iran, and I believe in many parts of the Islamic world, there exists a negative perception of these fields within the broader society.

Concerns related to religious studies have been persistent, always serving as a source of encouragement.

A common thread among these concerns is that, while we acknowledge the merits of their works and find their scientific aspects valuable, we have always been worried about the impact they might have on our identity, religion, civilization, and culture.

Despite these concerns, engaging in this field is challenging. Firstly, we must understand the factors behind these concerns, and secondly, we need solutions to alleviate them. Research and study within this atmosphere of concern can have negative consequences and, in many instances, lead to self-censorship.

Our Concern with Western Knowledge in the Field of Islam

We have consistently positioned ourselves as defenders of knowledge and have considered ourselves proponents of rationality. However, when Greek philosophy arrived, and later when Western thought made its way into our domain, we struggled to define the boundaries.

In fact, three significant points have been at play here:

1) The Scientific Aspect: Some of the research has been of a scientific nature, often leaving us convinced and occasionally in awe. A notable portion of Oriental studies is fundamentally scientific or purely linguistic, such as the correction of many Arabic or Persian works, and similar endeavors like cataloging manuscript copies. We have always made use of these. Many of them have been offset in Baghdad, Beirut, and Tehran.

2) The Notable Negative Effects: A significant number of writings by Orientalists have had notable negative effects on our identity, culture, and religion, which has deeply concerned us. Doubts have arisen regarding the authenticity of revelation, prophethood, and related matters. Questions have emerged, such as whether Islam has roots in Judaism or Christianity, whether there was a historical Prophet, or even the recent claim that Mecca was not originally the Qibla for Muslims.

3) Philosophical and Scientific Foundations of the West: These have always been a significant concern when examining religious concepts. Prominent examples include the works of Russian Orientalists and Communists who openly denied all religious concepts, considering them entirely artificial and products of discourse arising from production relations.

In the last two areas of concern, the hostility towards Oriental studies has been very serious. Whenever something is written, for a nation that feels its religion is under threat, such as their homeland, anti-Orientalist discourse has been highly appealing.

Unfortunately, there hasn’t been a precise way to academically distinguish between the outputs of Oriental studies, determining what is correct and what is incorrect. We could only generally advise trying to approach these issues with an “academic” perspective, although even the definition of “academic” and its level have differed in these cases and have been influenced to some extent by other foundations.

Much of our religious knowledge is comprehended solely through the language of religion, a perspective that cannot be entirely viewed through the lens of Western scientific concepts. Thus, a Westerner doesn’t understand our religious language, just as understanding their discourse can be challenging for us. In any case, this general recommendation doesn’t resolve the problem significantly, and it is only “patience,” progress in work, and time that will, to some extent, align us with the current situation.

Three Periods in Western Islamic Studies

I believe there has been a critical shift in the research of early Islam, marking the end of one era and the beginning of a new one. After a long period of travelogues and reports from the Islamic East, we can discern three distinct periods in Islamic studies:

1) Revival of Arabic Texts and Histories: This era peaked in the 19th century, focusing on the revival of Arabic texts, histories, diwans, and significant works. It had both precursors and successors.

2) Encyclopedia-oriented Research: Alongside this, as we progressed, we encountered encyclopedia-oriented research, with most of it centered on Islamic encyclopedias. Distinguished researchers emerged during this period, but they were few in number. Of course, they were all Westerners. Up until this point, Muslims had no participation in Western endeavors. Islamic encyclopedias bear witness to this claim.

3) A New Movement to Understand the East: This is the contemporary phase, a revival of interest in the past while concurrently examining the present. Various factors have contributed to this, including the Palestinian issue, ancient confrontations between the Islamic East and Christian West, colonialism and its aftermath, the Islamic Revolution in Iran, and subsequent movements like al-Qaeda and ISIS that have forced the West to delve deeper into Islam. Some aspects of this research resemble the model of research in Hebrew studies, where insights from the sacred book are applied to other areas. Regarding Indology, the portion related to the Persian language and Islam is connected to the period of the British East India Company’s rule. At this stage, even Muslims residing in the West are actively involved in research.

Whatever it is, now the attractions have increased, and as new works emerge, many enthusiasts are interested in getting to know Islamic countries, the history of Islam, Islamic art, and many other aspects.

Criticism of New Islamic Studies in the West Is Our Right

It is our natural right to have a critical stance towards the new research emerging in the West in the field of Islamic studies. This is both academically desirable and, considering that we are Muslims, if a topic related to our religion is published, it is normal to have a greater motivation for critique.

When they express opinions about us and our religious and cultural assets, we must critique. We can say that from certain perspectives, we have a better internal understanding of Islam, something they are deprived of, and until recently, they were unwilling to accept.

There is just one issue; in these criticisms, we will be accused of critiquing out of bias. Experience has shown that many of our critiques stem from religious biases and our prevalent beliefs (just as their research is influenced by their beliefs in the field of research and the humanities).

Let me provide three examples:

A: When the book “Islam in Iran” by Petrushevsky was published, despite the perception that there were no restrictions on publishing such works during the Shah’s era, the book could not be published without criticism. Aqa Hakimi wrote some critiques of it, which are included at the end of the book.

B: When the book “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empires” by Gibbon was published, the chapter related to Islam and the Prophet, Chapter Fifty, was not translated. This is despite the fact that this section, in comparison to officially Sunni texts, was written in a Shia manner. Gibbon, before mentioning Abu Bakr’s caliphate, dedicated an introduction to the character of Imam Ali, wrote very important and positive points, and explicitly states: “The Prophet, during his illness, was in the company of Aisha, the intelligent daughter of Abu Bakr, who was an opponent of Ali.”

C: About a decade ago, when the translation of the book “Shi’ism” by Heinz Halm was published, I attached nearly seventy footnotes to it for the Foundation for Islamic Studies to consider for publication. Critique is undoubtedly a valuable endeavor, and since works like these are important to us, we should critique Western works. However, this critique should be academic and systematic. The book “The Succession to Muhammad” also faced difficulties in publication and the publisher had to add footnotes and explanations. Eventually, a book critiquing it was written (Imam Ali: the Successor of the Messenger of Allah, by Hossein Abdolmohammadi), and the publisher, who was under pressure, decided to include it in the book’s introduction, allowing for its independent publication.

Understanding that Orientalism is Intended for Muslim and Non-Muslim Audiences

In essence, we must comprehend how these works have been written and on what foundations. We need to identify the methods they have used and the ways we can critique them. Here are a few points to consider:

Firstly, it’s crucial for Muslim readers to recognize that while the recipients of our writings here may be believers who accept many of our assumptions, their audience worldwide consists of individuals who are not necessarily believers. Grasping this concept requires reflection from us and all Muslim readers. Unfortunately, ordinary people and even many critics of Orientalist works lack this understanding.

Secondly, their research methods differ from ours. We need to familiarize ourselves with their methodologies and critique them based on those methods. We might find faults in their approach. The key is to understand the research methods they employ. These could be traditional methods, phenomenological approaches, or other methodologies rooted in different fields like linguistics (philology) and the like. We must take this into account and critique them on the same path. We need to cultivate the ability within ourselves to engage in critique. Generally, we possess traditional research methods and are less acquainted with modern research methods.

Thirdly, alongside avoiding bias in research, we must steer clear of being overly “zealous” and engaging in “biased” behavior, meaning we should avoid extremes in our approach. We are confronted with a Quranic verse: [5:8] “Do not let the hatred of a people lead you to injustice.” This verse encompasses both behavioral and intellectual aspects.

Deep intellectual and historical divides between Western Christianity and the Islamic East

The roots of our negative view of Oriental Studies have a history as deep as the emergence of Islam itself. This historical context, which is quite evident, can be summarized as follows:

Firstly, Islam arose during the reformulation of Christianity and Judaism. In fact, Islam grew in the rejection of Judaism and Christianity. Additionally, Islam replaced Christianity in the Levant and North Africa. The Quran’s slogan was “We were not Jews or Christians” and many verses were revealed criticizing and reforming Christianity and Judaism. After the Prophet’s passing, Islam engaged most significantly with Christianity. In Syria and North Africa, it took control of regions under Christian influence. This situation continued until the Crusades.

Secondly, with the onset of Western colonialism and the proliferation of contentious literature between Islam and Christianity, the efforts of Christian missionaries to convert Muslims in all these lands led to the revival of previous debates. Europeans did not have this situation in non-Muslim traditional Africa, but in the Middle East, the subcontinent, and Muslim North Africa, not only were many Muslim lands occupied by “Western Christians,” but efforts were made to “Christianize Muslims.” It seems natural to say that this issue had a significant impact on Oriental Studies and our criticisms as Muslims of their works.

Thirdly, the growth of Oriental Studies in the West during the Enlightenment era, along with the emergence of the new science of history, the utilization of novel research methods, extensive linguistic work, and new philosophical debates, placed “religious beliefs” under scrutiny. Similar to this situation in the West, it subjected Christianity and Judaism to intense scrutiny and dissected the bones of these two religions.

In fact, the Enlightenment era was critical of religion and religious beliefs, and this had an impact on Oriental Studies and Islamic Studies. The result is that our approach to Oriental Studies has been largely negative for the past two hundred years, and these roots trace back to the developments in these three periods.

The Acceleration of Islamic Studies in the West in Recent Years

In a new era of research in the field of Islamic studies, we are witnessing a fresh wave of expansion in this field. This phenomenon has several reasons, including:

Firstly, Islam plays a more active role in the world, which is due to various factors. However, what matters to us is the significance of this issue in the expansion of Islamic studies. Islamic countries are on a path of growth, and the West has no choice but to engage with them in various activities.

Secondly, the migration of a large number of Muslims to the West, which has followed the major migrations from the Indian subcontinent, Africa, as well as Iraqi Arabs, has provided the groundwork for this participation. Many of these individuals are young and devout. They are also familiar with modern education. They have assimilated part of Western culture and naturally look at issues through modern methodologies. They are interested in developing Islamic studies. Examples include institutions like Al-Azhar, Saudi institutions, and numerous individuals who, apart from these institutions, are in various universities.

Thirdly, Western-style universities or branches of major European and American universities in Qatar, the Emirates, and Beirut exist where graduates work with modern methodologies. In the past, these graduates primarily came from the American University of Beirut, but today, closer ties in this field have developed, contributing to the expansion of Islamic research with Western methodologies.

Fourthly, the virtual space and the widespread adoption of the English language by Muslims have led even Muslims in their own countries to engage with Western methodologies in these fields. Some want to know what Westerners are saying, others are interested in critiquing them, and some simply have a fascination with Western approaches. In any case, research in these areas is expanding in these countries. Translation of new works, albeit to a limited extent, is helping to develop these studies.

In any case, over the past half-century, scientific exchanges through translation, scientific conferences, Iranian and Islamic encyclopedias, the expansion of scholarly research articles, and the publication of articles in foreign journals have all, in one way or another, contributed to collaboration in creating a new intellectual space.

The Future of Islamic Studies in the West Will be Even More Astonishing than Before

Research fields in Islamic studies in the West, or institutions affiliated with the West, are expanding to such an extent that sooner or later, a significant amount of work will be generated from this area.

Currently, this work encompasses fields such as culture, history, society, and economics, and gradually, it will not only expand in these areas but also lead to new research in emerging topics. For instance, I can cite the field of jurisprudence (fiqh) as an example. If research in this area is widely opened up due to its intriguing subject matter, it will yield abundant results.

When Michael Cook wrote the book “Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought” and had it published through the efforts of the Mashad Research Foundation, it was possible to anticipate that a transformation in research in a new style of jurisprudential matters would occur, although in my opinion, this hasn’t fully materialized yet. Particularly, it pertains to the jurisprudential system of Sunni Islam, which has very broad dimensions.

In any case, one of the particular aspects of new research is the opening of the door to study entirely new fields. Topics that were previously thought to be suitable for only a few pages of writing are now becoming subjects for entire books. This expansion is a product of a unique perspective on historical subjects and, in essence, the growth of historical research fields and an addition to the field of historical sciences.

Has Our Tolerance Toward Some Criticisms by Orientalists Increased?

Can we say that some of the issues that used to cause negative sensitivity towards Oriental studies in the past have gradually become more ordinary? The world has moved towards tolerance, and we have also developed a more commonplace understanding of certain issues.

Issues that arose in Europe regarding Christianity, and were once considered a threat that would soon undermine Christianity, have now become commonplace. If time passes, our situation will more or less become the same. This process will certainly be gradual.

In my opinion, to some extent, it’s a positive response. We used to think that some issues would weaken our faith, but gradually it has become clear that the skin of religion is thicker than these criticisms:

Firstly, people’s faith is of a different nature and is not related to these issues, nor does it waver because of them. In fact, in the face of these criticisms, one can deal with them in a way that makes their faith even stronger.

Secondly, some of these issues are problems that even if they are correct, they do not necessarily have to undermine the foundation of the religion. The reason is that these studies, just as they raise criticisms, also provide solutions. For example, it used to be thought that saying some issues in the Quran were references to contemporary issues and beliefs would weaken the beliefs of Muslims, but now there are other linguistic justifications that shift the issue in another direction and do not create any disruption in our beliefs as it has not done so in recent years.

Orientalism, Orientalists and Colonialism

The association of Orientalism with colonialism and its related factors has been one of the most significant reasons for our aversion to the outcomes of these studies.

Muslims couldn’t simultaneously tolerate the colonizers who, with power, suppression, warships, and artillery, looted their countries, like in Algeria or India, and have a positive view of Westerners who wrote books and articles about Islam and the Islamic civilization. This pertains to a period that can be explicitly labeled as the era of direct colonization. The history of Orientalism from this perspective is fraught with issues, which critics often point to.

What’s particularly noteworthy is that in the records of these individuals, there’s often a history of collaboration with the foreign ministries or military and security organizations of their home countries. Critiques frequently focus on these matters.

Of course, there have been scholars in these countries who, regardless of these issues, engaged in scientific collaboration with them. However, whenever criticism was raised about Orientalism, the emphasis was often placed on these concerns.

For instance, in Iran, the cooperation of scholars like Taqizadeh or Ghazvini with a group of Orientalists was considered normal, and normalizing this collaboration served to minimize concerns. Nevertheless, doubts and suspicions persisted, and these individuals were also criticized periodically for these reasons.

However, a crucial issue for us as Muslims, especially Iranians, is the occupation of Orientalists, particularly their collaboration with colonial institutions. It is often argued that Orientalism emerged alongside, and even within, colonialism, and many of these individuals, either initially coming with the institutions of other countries to the Middle East or other Islamic lands like Egypt and North Africa, after learning Arabic or Persian and gaining expertise in understanding the East, were employed by Western intelligence, military, and propaganda institutions.

This matter has gone to such an extent that when it came to taking stronger stances against Zionism in this field, Irwin writes, “When Louis Massignon died in 1962 … he believed that Christians should learn a lot about true monotheism, the nature of worship, and many other things from Muslims” (Dangerous Knowledge, pp. 271-272). Regarding Hamilton Gibb, whom Edward Said criticizes in Orientalism, he states, “He was a critic of British policies in the Arab and Palestinian issue.”

Concerning Algar, who wrote early works about the Iranian revolution, some skeptical individuals even claimed that Edward Granville Browne was the intellectual mastermind behind the Iranian Constitutional Revolution.

The issue of collaboration with governments, espionage, or providing guidance to them may have different interpretations in various cultures and countries. However, for us Iranians, who have been under foreign influence for at least two centuries, it carries a particularly negative connotation.

Perhaps in recent years, the situation has changed, and Western researchers’ academic independence has increased. If that’s the case, it may have some positive impact on mitigating negative perceptions.

Sometimes our knowledge of Orientalists is limited. Consider this sentence from Robert Irwin: “In general, a remarkable number of French Orientalists of the twentieth century were anti-imperialists, including Jacques Berque, Vincent Monteil, André Julien, Roger Blachère, Claude Cahen, and Maxime Rodinson” (p. 272).

Nevertheless, the story of colonialism and orientalism itself is quite extensive, and its effects on our perception of this phenomenon and the credibility and respect we have for its intellectual productions have been far-reaching.

One of the most famous Orientalists, who, over more than seventy years, aligned his scientific activities with political positions, professional conduct, and an approach against Muslims, was Bernard Lewis. He openly spoke in alignment with Israeli policies and analyzed them. Doctoral dissertations have been written about him both in Iran and Saudi Arabia, attempting to clarify the roots of his positions. Such instances are black marks that have cast doubt on the record of Orientalism.

However, what the European monarchs and later the modern governments there were doing has many justifications. In one of these cases, after World War I, it is mentioned that following England’s successive failures in the Far East, a committee was appointed under the chairmanship of Lord Scarbrough, the former governor of Bombay, to “examine the facilities offered by universities and other educational institutions in Great Britain for the study of Eastern, Slavic, Eastern European, and African languages and cultures, and to determine what benefits can be derived from these facilities and provide recommendations for their improvement” (p. 282). The recommendation of this committee, due to the backwardness of Oriental studies in Britain, led to a substantial allocation of funds for the development of Oriental studies.

Oriental Studies Still Faces Accusations

Currently, entering the field of Islamic studies remains challenging, and the grounds for accusations are still present. In such a way that if a Western or Eastern researcher is influenced by these methods, they can still face the same issues as in the past when being accused. In some cases, prejudices may have even intensified.

In recent years, with the improvement of the financial situation in Arab countries, they support research conducted within European countries in the field of Islam. Their goal is to defend Islam, especially Salafi Islam. However, while much of this research is valuable and useful, it requires attention to the potential biases in these studies. Western concerns may be that some of these Muslims openly intend to influence this research.

Among those involved in these discussions is Aqa Majid Daneshgar, who had a conversation on this topic with Aqa Zaher Mir Karimi. As far as I understand, in his view, there is a danger of ideological tendencies entering research in the field of Quranic studies, and anyone entering this field should be vigilant against such influences.

He is concerned about the confrontations of some anti-Orientalist Muslim scholars who label new research in Islamic studies as neo-colonialism and may hinder Quranic studies with their activities, which they refer to as a form of political action and advocacy. His criticisms of Edward Said are particularly noteworthy.

Another point to consider is that the heritage of Orientalists in fields that are not inherently ideological is significant. We should always pay attention to the immense volume of work and the role it has played in reviving Islamic culture. These studies encompass language, lexicography, history, text editing, and many other subjects that could be neglected and overlooked in this debate.

It’s interesting to note that some works written by Western scholars about Islamic civilization have an admiring tone towards Islamic culture, which has always been attractive to Muslims. At least three books of this kind have been translated into Persian during the Pahlavi era and have been used by Iranian Muslim authors.

Let us remember that we never dedicated ourselves to studying any culture other than our own when the Europeans were busy studying and understanding Islamic culture from the 17th to the 20th centuries. What were the motivations behind these activities?

Orientalist adversaries have always focused on political, hegemonic, and colonial motivations, which have undoubtedly existed. However, the love for understanding the East, both for diversity and, importantly, as an addition to Western knowledge, has been one of the most significant motivations. Without this love, the work wouldn’t have reached this level.

No matter how many recommendations are made, it can be considered a presumption that Muslims still maintain a cautious attitude towards Western productions. They are as happy with the publication of a text that has a favorable attitude towards their faith as they are indifferent to other issues, or if it contains criticism, they may not be willing to accept it.

It may take years for them to feel that a belief is tolerable and justifiable, but overall, this difficulty will persist, and its consequences will also be waiting.

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